A pretty darned good wiki on Vitamin D – Ed

Vitamin D Sources: Where Do We Get Our Vitamin D?

The primary source of Vitamin D is UVB irradiation from the sun. [1] From spring until autumn, 15 minutes of sunlight exposure to face, arms, and hands is enough to maintain adequate levels of Vitamin D. [2] However, winter in the UK does not have sufficient levels of UVB radiation to elicit Vitamin D synthesis. [3] Additionally, most sunscreens block UVB irradiation, thus inhibit the cutaneous synthesis of Vitamin D from the sun. [1] Furthermore, aging decreases the ability of the skin to produce vitamin D from the sun. [4] Moreover, a 70 year old synthesizes 4 times less Vitamin D from the sun than a 20 year old. [5] However, aging does not change the ability to obtain Vitamin D from dietary sources. [6] In addition, the ability to synthesize Vitamin D from UV irradiation depends on the degree of skin pigmentation, the darker the skin the more difficult for cutaneous Vitamin D synthesis. Skin pigmentation is a natural sunscreen and reduces the body’s ability to synthesize Vitamin D. [1] Percentage body fat is also negatively correlated with the ability to obtain Vitamin D from the sun. The higher the percentage body fat, the less bioavailability of Vitamin D produced from the sun. [7] [8]

Dietary sources of Vitamin D include fish such as salmon (530 IU per 3.5 ounces), sardines (231 IU per 3.5 ounces), mackerel (213 IU per 3.5 ounces), and cod oil (400 IU per teaspoon).

[1] [9] Mushrooms are also high in Vitamin D. [10] Foods that are enriched with Vitamin D include whole milk (100IU per 8 oz), orange juice (100IU per 8 oz), some cereals, and some yogurts. [11] However, foods fortified with Vitamin D do not contain adequate levels to satisfy the daily recommended dosage. [12]
Recommended Doses of Vitamin D Supplementation

The Linus Pauling Institute recommends a daily intake of 2,000 IU for healthy adults, especially for individuals that are at high risk for for Vitamin D deficiency such as the elderly and individuals with dark skin, such as African Americans. [13] According to the The Institute of Medicine, the acceptable upper intake level of Vitamin D for infants 0-12 months is 1,000 IU, for children 1-18 years is 2,000 IU, and adults is 2,000 IU. [13] Importantly, studies have shown there is no significant difference in Vitamin D absorption between tablets and cod liver oil. [14]
Vitamin D toxicity: How much is too Much?

Data compiled from several different Vitamin D supplementation studies reveal that Vitamin D toxicity is obtained at doses higher than 10,000 IU. [15] Toxic doses of Vitamin D can result in exceedingly high serum levels of calcium, known as hypercalcemia, and have been reported at doses higher than 50,000 IU. [16]
How do I find out if I’m Vitamin D deficient?

The major circulating form of Vitamin D obtained through both cutaneous synthesis as well as dietary intake is Serum 25(OH)D, which is the principle assessment of Vitamin D status. [17] Common assays used to asses Vitamin D status include the following: the Nichols Advantage Assay (chemiluminescence protein-binding assay), and the DiaSorin radioimmunoassay. [18] Therefore, maintaining adequate serum levels of Vitamin D (75–125 nmol/L)[19] is essential for overall health.
Vitamin D Deficiency

Vitamin D deficiency is now considered to be a pandemic. [12] Approximately 1 billion people worldwide have deficient levels of Vitamin D. [20] [21] [22] [23]
Calcium Homeostasis

One of the major functions of Vitamin D is to maintain calcium homeostasis. The binding of Vitamin D to the Vitamin D receptor is necessary for calcium and phosphorus absorption. Vitamin D is required for intestinal calcium absorption and Vitamin D deficiency results in only 10-15% absorption of dietary calcium and 60% of phosphorous is absorbed. [24] [19] When Vitamin D levels are adequate, absorption of dietary calcium increases to 40% while 80% of phosphorous is absorbed. [24] [19] A lack of Vitamin D results in increased parathyroid activity which increases osteoclasts, which break down bone, thus, increasing the risk for osteoporosis. [25]
Role in Reducing Risk of Osteoporosis

The elderly are particularly susceptible to osteoporosis and are frequently deficient in Vitamin D. [1] One study found that patients (over the age of 50) that were hospitalized for minimal fractures, 97% were deficient in Vitamin D, with levels less than 30 nanograms per ml. [26]
Role in Skeletal Development, and Reducing Rickets in Infants

Rickets
Severe Vitamin D deficiency also negatively affects children by adversely affecting bone development and reducing minerialization, resulting in a condition known as rickets.

[27] Rickets is particularly common in children, and is a softening of the bones which leads to deformity and reduced bone tensile strength. It is also known as rachitis, or in some countries “English disease.” It causes bowed legs, and knock-knees. Infants of African-American descent, and anyone whose skin contains a relatively large amount of melanin are at particular risk of rickets and/or Vitamin D deficiency because melanin acts as a filter that absorbs solar radiation. [28] In the 1940s rickets was considered the most common disease of early childhood. Some studies have found a correlation to the percentile in height in weight growth of children, and blood levels of Vitamin D. Vitamin D levels in maternal breastmilk rely on their own Vitamin D intake, thus if a mother lacks in Vitamin D, the breastmilk she is providing for her infant will also have reduced Vitamin D levels. Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that all breastfeeding women should have adequate Vitamin D levels to ensure their children achieve maximum developmental potential. [28]
The Effects of Vitamin D on Inflammation
Diabetes

The World Health Organization estimates that 180 million people have diabetes worldwide. [29] Three-quarters of youth with type 1 diabetes are deficient in Vitamin D. [30] Children deficient in Vitamin D have an increased risk for developing type 1 diabetes, and one study found that children given a Vitamin D supplement were found 30% less likely to develop type 1 diabetes than those who were not. [31] In addition, Vitamin D supplementation was shown to reduce the onset of diabetes in a mouse model for type 1 diabetes mellitus. [32] Vitamin D regulates the insulin response to glucose in pancreatic beta cells which have a Vitamin D receptor. [33] In addition, the release of insulin from beta islet cells depends on calcium [34], which is also regulated by Vitamin D. Additionally, Vitamin D has been shown to increase glucose transport into the cell. [35] Vitamin D deficiency has also been correlated with type 2 diabetes. [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] Vitamin D supplementation has demonstrated efficacy in decreasing insulin resistance, the hallmark of diabetes, in a double-blind, randomized trial. [42]
Obesity

Vitamin D deficiency can promote unhealthy weight gain and stunt growth during puberty. [43] Vitamin D levels are linked to the ability to successfully lose weight. For each 1 nanogram per ml increase of Vitamin D, subjects were able to lose a half a pound more than controls. [44] Cutaneously synthesized Vitamin D is stored in fat tissue and obese individuals have greater than 50% less bioavailability of Vitamin D compared to non-obese individuals. [45] Additionally, people age 65 and over that are overweight have significantly lower levels of Vitamin D compared to those with less body fat. [46]
Multiple Sclerosis

Vitamin D plays a critical role in multiple sclerosis (MS), a major inflammatory disease resulting in demyelination of nerve fibers and spinal cord. Vitamin D directly activates a gene (called DRB1) that is mutated in MS patients and in the absence of Vitamin D, the gene does not function properly. [47] Therefore, taking Vitamin D supplements during pregnancy and early in childhood will reduce the risk of developing MS later in life. Epidemiological Studies from Harvard School of Medicine reported that increased Vitamin D levels can prevent MS. The study found that participants with Vitamin D concentrations of ~40 nanograms per ml were 62% less likely to develop MS. [48]
Chronic Pain

Epidemiological studies indicate that 93%of people with chronic muscoskeletal pain are deficient in Vitamin D; people of all ages, gender and race are at risk for Vitamin D deficiency. [49] Research from the Mayo Clinic suggests that patients with chronic pain had inadequate Vitamin D levels, the more severe the pain the more insufficient Vitamin D status. [50]
Depression

Depression is also correlated to Vitamin D deficiency. In an epidemiological study involving over 1000 adults, those with major or minor depression had significantly lower levels of Vitamin D. [51] Vitamin D response elements are also located on two genes that regulate depression: the serotonin receptor and tryptophan hydroxylase. Therefore, Vitamin D has a direct physiological role in regulating depression. [52]
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Vitamin D deficiency is also a risk factor for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease. [53] Vitamin D supplementation ameliorated symptoms in a mouse model for SLE. [54]
Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with insufficient levels of Vitamin D. [55] Supplementation with a Vitamin D analogue results in symptomatic alleviation in 89% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. [56] Mouse models that were immunized with type II collagen to induce rheumatoid arthritis were pre-treated with Vitamin D, there was no appearance of clinical symptoms. [57] Moreover, subsequent treatment with Vitamin D suppressed clinical symptoms after inducing rheumatoid arthritis in a mouse model. [58]
Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Vitamin D is also associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) ; 50% of patients with IBD are deficient in Vitamin D. [59] Moreover, supplementation with Vitamin D ameliorate symptoms in a mouse model of IBD. [60]
Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease

Vitamin D regulates renin, a hormone that is a critical modulator of blood pressure. Low serum levels of Vitamin D will activate the renin-angiostensin system, causing thickening of blood vessels. [61] People with serum Vitamin D levels below 15 nanograms per ml are twice as likely to experience a heart attack or stroke. [62] Men deficient (15 nanograms per ml or less) or with intermediate levels of Vitamin D have an increased risk for heart attack compared to men with adequate levels of Vitamin D. [63] Hypertensive patients treated with UVB radiation to increase cutaneous synthesis of Vitamin D displayed a 6mm Hg decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure as compared to controls. [64]
Vitamin D and Cancer

Vitamin D also has been implicated in the prevention of cancer. Epidemiological studies demonstrate that a daily dose of 1500 IU of Vitamin D resulted in a 17% reduction of total cancer, a 29% reduction in cancer mortality, a 43% decrease risk of cancer of the digestive system as well as a 45% decrease in mortality. [65] Vitamin D supplementation also reduces the risk of prostate cancer and [66] breast cancer. [67] Research from UCSD indicates that women supplementing 2000 IU Vitamin D daily had serum levels of 52 ng/ml which was associated with a 50% reduction incidence of breast cancer. [68] In a population-based, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study involving 1179 women, supplementation with 1100 IU of Vitamin D resulted in a 60% reduction in cancer incidence. [69] Additionally, just 400 IU of Vitamin D per day reduced the risk of pancreatic cancer by 43%.[70] Vitamin D also reduces tumor size in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. [71] The “anti-cancer” properties of Vitamin D are attributed to it’s ability to decrease proliferation and reduce angiogenesis in several different cancer cells in-vitro. [72] [73] [74]
Vitamin D and Ageing

An epidimiological study consisting of 2,100 female twin pairs ages 19-79 reported that increased Vitamin D levels correlated with increased telomere length, a genetic marker for aging. The difference between telomere length between those with high versus low levels of Vitamin D corresponded to 5 years of aging. [75] Furthermore, mice genetically engineered to lack the Vitamin D receptor display premature ageing. [76]
Vitamin D and the Nervous System
Vitamin D plays a critical role in brain development and function. Vitamin D receptors are broadly distributed throughout the embryonic and adult brain including but not limited to: the temporal, orbital and cingulate cortex, the thalamus, the accumbens nuclei, parts of the stria terminalis, the
Calcatriol. 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.
amygdala, the hippocampus, and the substantia niagra. [77][78]
Calcatriol. 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.

Additionally, Vitamin D is synthesized by glial cells in the nervous system and is a potent anti-oxidant by increasing expression of glutathione, a free-radical scavenger, and inhibiting nitric oxide synthase. [79] Moreover, Vitamin D regulates important neurotrophic factors in the brain such as nerve growth factor (NGF), which affect neuroplasticity and neurotransmission. [80] Also, Vitamin D increases the expression of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which inhibits the cell death of dopamenergic neurons in the substantia nigra, the degeneration of which is responsible for the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. [81] In a mouse model for Parkinson’s Disease, injection of Vitamin D prevented the loss of dopamenergic neurons in the substantia nigra. [82]
Vitamin D and Neurodegenerative Disease (Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease)

Vitamin D deficiency occurs in 55% of patients with Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and 41% in patients with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). [83] Vitamin D receptors and 1α-hydroxylase (1α-OHase), the enzyme responsible for converting Vitamin D into it’s active form, are heavily expressed in the substantia nigra, the region of brain where dopaminergic neurons are located. [84] Moreover, Alzheimer’s Disease has been linked to genetic mutations in the Vitamin D receptor, and patients with the mutation were 2.3 times more likely to develop Alzheimer’s Disease. [85] Higher serum Vitamin D levels is associated with significantly better cognitive function skills in AD patients, further evidence linking Alzheimer’s to Vitamin D. [86] In addition, there is an association between Vitamin D and epilepsy; Vitamin D exhibits a neuro-protective effect in a mouse model of epilepsy. [87]
Vitamin D Reduces Risk of Developing Schizophrenia

In a study involving over 9,000 participants in Finland, the statistical likelihood of developing schizophrenia was tracked in relation to amount of Vitamin D supplemented per day. Of these individuals, 100 developed schizophrenia by age 31, and it was found that there was a significant correlation between Vitamin D supplementation and reduced likelihood of having developed schizophrenia. 2000I.U. per day supplementation of Vitamin D appeared to reduce the risk of schizophrenia in men by 77% overall. [88]
Vitamin D Deficiency as a Risk Factor in Autism

Young Autistic Child with Ducks in a Row

Autism has shown a statistical increase in incidence over the last twenty years. Theories as to the exact cause of this correlation are diverse. [89] However, average Vitamin D levels over the past twenty years have been falling as a consequence of increased use of sunscreens, which blocks Vitamin D production, as mentioned earlier.[1] Perhaps what drives the nail in the coffin that there is some kind of link is the fact that recent studies have indicated that there is a higher risk of autism in black families, whom, as mentioned above, also have an overall higher likelihood of being Vitamin D deficient due to the fact that melanin itself blocks Vitamin D production. After controlling for sociodemographic variables it appears that there is an over two fold increase in risk for developing autism in black children as compared to white children.[90] Additionally, a four fold increase in risk is observed in males versus females, whom are also run more risk of other vitamin D deficient-induced diseases such as rickets.[90] Interestingly, vitamin D deficiency has been shown to induce larger brain growth in rat pups — a developmental abnormality which is also occurs in human autistic children.[89]
Vitamin D and Cystic Fibrosis

Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent among children with cystic fibrosis (CF). A distinguishing characteristic of CF is the inability to absorb nutrients resulting in malnutrition. Between 2003 and 2006, 86% of pediatric patients with CF were Vitamin D deficient (serum levels lower than 30 nanograms per milliliter). [91] Adequate blood levels of Vitamin D were not achieved in most patients even at 3 times the recommended dose. It wasn’t until the dose was raised to approximately 25 times the recommended dose (50,000 IU three times weekly) that adequate Vitamin D levels were maintained. [91] According to the Linus Pauling Institute for Micronutrient Research, 50,000 IU is extremely toxic in normal, healthy individuals. [13]
Vitamin D and Reproduction

Some women having difficulty with ovulation may not have enough Vitamin D. Research from Yale School of Medicine found Vitamin D deficiency in 93% of 67 infertile women. [92] Researchers from UCLA found that Vitamin D activates an immune response in human placental tissue which can help prevent infection from pathogenic bacteria such as staphylococcus, streptococcus, and E. coli. [93] Therefore, Vitamin D can help protect the placenta from microbial infections and aid in preventing pregnancy-associated infection. In addition, epidemiological studies have shown that 93% of women with bacterial vaginosis are deficient in Vitamin D. [94]
Vitamin D and the Immune System

Vitamin D receptors are present on cells responsible for both the innate and adaptive immune response, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. [95] Vitamin D affects the expression of genes involved in an immune response; it increases the gene expression of cathelicidin, which kills bacteria, and CD14, which aids in the recognition of various pathogens. [96] Increased incidence of respiratory infection is linked to Vitamin D deficiency. Epidemiological studies indicate that people with low levels of Vitamin D are 40% more likely to have a respiratory infection. [97] Additionally, asthma patients with low levels of Vitamin D are 5 times more likely to have a respiratory infection. [98]
Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is associated with inadequate levels of Vitamin D; over 90% of TB patients are Vitamin D deficient. Moreover, a single 2.5 mg dose of Vitamin D is enough to activate the immune system, allowing the body to stave off a TB infection for up to 6 weeks. [99]

Buy Vitamin D NOW from Puritan’s Pride!Contents [hide]
1 Vitamin D Sources, Supplementation and Toxicity
1.1 Vitamin D Sources: Where Do We Get Our Vitamin D?
1.1.1 Recommended Doses of Vitamin D Supplementation
1.1.2 Vitamin D toxicity: How much is too Much?
1.1.3 How do I find out if I’m Vitamin D deficient?
2 Vitamin D Deficiency
2.1 Calcium Homeostasis
2.1.1 Role in Reducing Risk of Osteoporosis
2.1.2 Role in Skeletal Development, and Reducing Rickets in Infants
2.2 The Effects of Vitamin D on Inflammation
2.2.1 Diabetes
2.2.2 Obesity
2.2.3 Multiple Sclerosis
2.2.4 Chronic Pain
2.2.5 Depression
2.2.6 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
2.2.7 Rheumatoid Arthritis
2.2.8 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
2.3 Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease
2.4 Vitamin D and Cancer
2.5 Vitamin D and Ageing
2.6 Vitamin D and the Nervous System
2.6.1 Vitamin D and Neurodegenerative Disease (Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease)
2.6.2 Vitamin D Reduces Risk of Developing Schizophrenia
2.6.3 Vitamin D Deficiency as a Risk Factor in Autism
2.7 Vitamin D and Cystic Fibrosis
2.8 Vitamin D and Reproduction
2.9 Vitamin D and the Immune System
2.10 Tuberculosis
2.11 References

References
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